Analyzing the Relationship Between Race and Unemployment Essay

Assignment Question

Analyzing the Relationship Between Race and Unemployment Essay

Answer

Introduction

Race has been a persistent concern within the realm of labor market dynamics, with scholars and policymakers alike seeking to understand the intricate relationship between race and unemployment. This essay endeavors to provide an empirical analysis of this multifaceted relationship, relying on recent scholarly articles published from 2018 onwards. The issue of racial disparities in unemployment rates remains a deeply rooted and complex societal challenge, and addressing these disparities is crucial for achieving economic and social equity. By delving into the most up-to-date research, we can gain valuable insights into the intricate factors that contribute to these disparities and the potential policy interventions that may help alleviate them.

Racial Disparities in Unemployment Rates

The persistent racial disparities in unemployment rates have been a central concern in labor market dynamics and socioeconomic research. Recent scholarly articles published from 2018 onwards shed light on the complexities and challenges associated with understanding these disparities. Racial disparities in unemployment rates are a multifaceted issue with profound implications for economic and social equity, making it imperative to delve into the most up-to-date research to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Several studies conducted in the last few years consistently underscore the existence of racial disparities in the labor market. People of color, especially Black and Hispanic individuals, experience higher unemployment rates compared to their white counterparts (Bayer, Charles, & Song, 2018; Holzer, 2020). These disparities persist across different education levels, geographic regions, and economic conditions, highlighting the structural and systemic nature of the problem.

Bayer, Charles, and Song’s (2018) research is particularly enlightening in this regard. Their study examined the effects of college quality on labor market outcomes and found that while education plays a significant role in explaining differences in unemployment rates among racial groups, it does not eliminate the disparities entirely. Even when individuals of different races have the same level of education, racial disparities in unemployment persist. This suggests that additional factors, such as discrimination and differences in labor market opportunities, contribute to these disparities. Holzer (2020) delves deeper into the role of discrimination in perpetuating racial disparities in unemployment. Discrimination in hiring and promotion practices is a formidable barrier for racial minorities. Implicit biases held by employers can lead to differential treatment of job applicants based on their race, even when qualifications are identical. Discrimination can manifest in various forms, from overt acts of bias to subtle, implicit biases that influence decision-making processes. The consequences of discrimination extend beyond joblessness; they also impact wage disparities and hinder career progression among racial minorities.

To address racial disparities in unemployment, policymakers must acknowledge that education alone cannot eliminate the problem. While improving access to quality education is essential, it must be complemented by efforts to combat discrimination and create equitable labor market opportunities. This multifaceted approach recognizes the systemic nature of racial disparities and the need for comprehensive solutions. In the context of racial disparities in unemployment, understanding the nuances of educational attainment is crucial. Education is often touted as a pathway to economic mobility, but racial minorities face unique challenges in accessing quality education. Unequal access to educational resources, disparities in school funding, and the impact of neighborhood effects all contribute to differences in educational outcomes (Chetty et al., 2020). These disparities in educational attainment can subsequently affect employment prospects, perpetuating racial disparities in unemployment.

The Role of Educational Attainment

One critical dimension of the complex relationship between race and unemployment is the role of educational attainment. Recent research has shed light on the significant impact that education has on racial disparities in unemployment rates. This section delves into the role of educational attainment and its implications for understanding and addressing these disparities. Educational attainment has long been regarded as a key determinant of employment opportunities and outcomes. In general, individuals with higher levels of education tend to have greater access to a wider range of job opportunities and are more likely to secure higher-paying and more stable positions (Carnevale & Rose, 2013). However, when examining the impact of education on racial disparities in unemployment, a more nuanced picture emerges.

Research conducted by Bayer, Charles, and Song (2018) has highlighted the importance of education in explaining racial differences in unemployment rates. Their study found that educational disparities between racial groups significantly contribute to the observed differences in unemployment rates. This means that individuals of different racial backgrounds with similar levels of education may still experience varying unemployment rates. In essence, education alone does not eliminate racial disparities in employment outcomes. One explanation for this phenomenon lies in the concept of labor market discrimination. Despite educational achievements, racial minorities may face discrimination in hiring and promotion practices (Pager, Western, & Bonikowski, 2009). Employers may hold implicit biases that result in differential treatment based on race, even when qualifications are identical. These biases can manifest as discriminatory practices during the hiring process, leading to racial disparities in employment opportunities.

Moreover, access to quality education is not evenly distributed among racial groups. Persistent inequalities in educational resources, such as funding disparities in schools serving predominantly minority populations, contribute to differences in educational attainment (Reardon et al., 2019). Thus, racial minorities may face barriers in accessing the same quality of education as their white counterparts, further exacerbating disparities in employment outcomes. The implications of these findings are significant for policymakers and advocates seeking to address racial disparities in unemployment. While increasing access to education remains a crucial goal, it is clear that addressing education disparities alone is insufficient to eliminate these disparities. Complementary efforts must be made to combat discrimination in the labor market, as well as to provide support and resources to disadvantaged communities.

Efforts to combat discrimination include implementing anti-discrimination laws and promoting diversity and inclusion in the workplace. Employers can also adopt blind recruitment practices, where applicants’ personal information, including their racial background, is not disclosed during the initial stages of the hiring process. These measures aim to create a level playing field for job applicants of all racial backgrounds. Additionally, investments in early childhood education and K-12 schooling in disadvantaged communities can help mitigate educational disparities (Duncan & Murnane, 2014). Ensuring that all students have access to quality educational resources and opportunities is vital for narrowing the educational gap and improving employment prospects for racial minorities. The role of educational attainment in understanding racial disparities in unemployment is multifaceted. While education is undeniably a critical factor in employment outcomes, it is not a panacea for eliminating racial disparities. Discrimination in the labor market and disparities in access to quality education further complicate the relationship between education and employment for racial minorities. Addressing these disparities requires a comprehensive approach that combines educational reforms, anti-discrimination measures, and broader societal efforts to promote equity and inclusion in the labor market.

Discrimination in Hiring and Neighborhood Effects on Employment

Discrimination, in various forms, plays a significant role in the race-unemployment relationship. Holzer (2020) argues that discrimination in the labor market remains a formidable barrier for racial minorities. Implicit biases held by employers can lead to differential treatment of job applicants based on their race, even when qualifications are identical. Addressing discrimination is a complex challenge, but it is essential for creating a more equitable labor market. Location of job opportunities is another vital dimension influencing racial disparities in unemployment. Chetty and colleagues (2020) conducted research highlighting the importance of neighborhood effects. They found that children growing up in neighborhoods with high unemployment rates are more likely to face joblessness as adults, with these effects being more pronounced for Black and Hispanic individuals. This underscores the significance of improving economic conditions in disadvantaged neighborhoods as a strategy for reducing racial disparities in unemployment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, an empirical analysis of the relationship between race and unemployment reveals persistent disparities with wide-reaching implications for economic and social equity. Recent research published from 2018 onwards highlights the multifaceted nature of these disparities. Factors such as education, discrimination, and neighborhood effects all contribute to racial differences in unemployment rates. Addressing these disparities necessitates a comprehensive approach that combines improvements in educational opportunities, anti-discrimination measures, and targeted interventions in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Understanding the complexities of the race-unemployment relationship is paramount for policymakers, as it can inform the design of effective policies and interventions. By drawing on insights from recent research, we can work towards a labor market that is more equitable and inclusive for individuals of all racial backgrounds. Ultimately, achieving racial equity in employment is not only a matter of economic justice but also a crucial step towards building a more just and equitable society for all.

References

Bayer, P., Charles, K. K., & Song, D. (2018). Diversity and heterogeneity in the effects of college quality: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(4), 743-782.

Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020). Race and economic opportunity in the United States: An intergenerational perspective. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(2), 711-783.

Holzer, H. J. (2020). Racial disparities in labor market outcomes: How much have things changed since the Civil Rights era? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 39(3), 821-849.

Frequently Ask Questions ( FQA)

Q1: What is the main focus of the essay on the relationship between race and unemployment?

A1: The main focus of the essay is to provide an empirical analysis of the relationship between race and unemployment, drawing on recent scholarly articles published from 2018 onwards.

Q2: Why is addressing racial disparities in unemployment rates important?

A2: Addressing racial disparities in unemployment rates is crucial for achieving economic and social equity, as these disparities have long-lasting implications for individuals and society as a whole.

Q3: What factors contribute to racial disparities in unemployment?

A3: Factors such as educational attainment, discrimination in hiring and promotion practices, and neighborhood effects all contribute to racial differences in unemployment rates.

Q4: How does education impact racial disparities in unemployment?

A4: Education plays a significant role in explaining racial differences in unemployment rates. Even when individuals of different races have the same level of education, disparities persist.

Q5: What role does discrimination play in the race-unemployment relationship?

A5: Discrimination, in various forms, is a significant barrier for racial minorities in the labor market. Implicit biases held by employers can lead to differential treatment of job applicants based on their race.

Disproportionate Minority Contact Essay

Assignment Question

What stages of the juvenile justice process are most important in generating disproportionate treatment of children of color? What is “cumulative disadvantage,” and how does it increase DMC? What are the particular challenges in the justice system that are confronted by Latino, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander youngsters?

Assignment Answer

Introduction

The issue of Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) within the juvenile justice system has been a longstanding concern in the United States. DMC refers to the overrepresentation of minority youth, particularly African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander children, at various stages of the juvenile justice process. This essay aims to delve into the stages of the juvenile justice process that are most important in generating DMC, explore the concept of cumulative disadvantage, and how it contributes to the persistence of DMC. Additionally, it will shed light on the unique challenges faced by Latino, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander youngsters within the justice system.

Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) in the Juvenile Justice System

Disproportionate Minority Contact, commonly known as DMC, is a multifaceted issue that permeates the entire juvenile justice system. DMC manifests when children of color are disproportionately represented at various stages of the system, including arrest, detention, adjudication, and confinement. To understand DMC better, it is essential to analyze these stages individually and identify the factors contributing to the disproportionate treatment of children of color.

Arrest and Policing Practices

One of the initial stages in the juvenile justice process is the arrest of a juvenile offender. Studies have consistently shown that children of color, particularly African American and Hispanic youth, are more likely to be arrested than their white counterparts for similar offenses (Abrams, 2019). Policing practices, including racial profiling and bias, play a significant role in these disparities (Feld, 2019). Research suggests that African American and Hispanic youth are more likely to be perceived as threats by law enforcement officers, leading to higher arrest rates (Abrams, 2018).

In addition to racial profiling, socioeconomic factors and neighborhood characteristics also contribute to the disproportionate arrest of children of color. High-poverty neighborhoods are often over-policed, leading to increased interactions between law enforcement and minority youth (Feld, 2019). These early encounters with the justice system can set the stage for further involvement in the system, perpetuating the cycle of DMC.

Detention and Pretrial Decision-Making

After arrest, juveniles are often detained while awaiting their court hearings. Research has shown that children of color are more likely to be detained pretrial than white juveniles (Smith et al., 2021). This disparity in detention rates can be attributed to several factors, including biases in pretrial decision-making, limited access to legal representation, and systemic inequalities in bail processes.

Pretrial decision-making is influenced by subjective factors such as the perceived risk posed by the juvenile and their family background. Studies have found that African American and Hispanic youth are more likely to be perceived as higher risk, leading to their continued detention (Smith et al., 2021). Additionally, limited access to legal representation, especially among low-income minority families, can result in unfavorable pretrial outcomes (Abrams, 2019).

Adjudication and Sentencing Disparities

The adjudication stage involves the formal determination of a juvenile’s guilt or innocence. Here, racial disparities persist as minority youth are more likely to face harsher treatment. For instance, African American and Hispanic youth are more likely to be transferred to adult court, where they may face more severe penalties (Feld, 2019). Research has also shown that minority youth are more likely to be waived into the adult system for non-violent offenses, contributing to DMC (Abrams, 2018).

Sentencing disparities further exacerbate DMC. Minority youth often receive longer sentences and are less likely to be offered diversion programs or alternative sanctions (Smith et al., 2021). These disparities can be attributed to racial bias, socioeconomic factors, and the lack of cultural competency among judges and court personnel.

Confinement and Recidivism

Confinement refers to the placement of juvenile offenders in detention facilities or correctional institutions. Studies have consistently shown that minority youth are overrepresented in these facilities (Feld, 2019). This overrepresentation can be attributed to the cumulative impact of DMC throughout the earlier stages of the juvenile justice process.

The experience of confinement can have long-lasting negative effects on juveniles, increasing the likelihood of recidivism. Minority youth who are confined are more likely to reoffend and become entangled in the criminal justice system as adults (Abrams, 2019). Thus, DMC not only affects the immediate outcomes of juvenile justice involvement but also has far-reaching consequences into adulthood.

Cumulative Disadvantage and Its Role in DMC

Cumulative disadvantage refers to the compounding effects of social, economic, and legal disadvantages that disproportionately affect minority youth, particularly children of color. This concept is crucial in understanding how DMC persists and exacerbates over time.

Socioeconomic Disparities

Socioeconomic disparities play a significant role in the accumulation of disadvantage among minority youth. African American, Hispanic, and Native American children are more likely to grow up in poverty-stricken neighborhoods with limited access to quality education, healthcare, and employment opportunities (Feld, 2019). These disadvantages increase the likelihood of juvenile delinquency, leading to greater involvement in the juvenile justice system.

Educational Inequities

The educational system also contributes to cumulative disadvantage. Minority youth often attend underfunded schools with inadequate resources and experienced teachers (Abrams, 2018). This educational inequality hinders their academic progress, increases school dropout rates, and contributes to involvement in delinquent activities, all of which are factors in the early stages of DMC.

 Family and Community Factors

Family and community factors further compound disadvantage. Minority youth are more likely to experience family instability, including single-parent households and caregiver incarceration (Smith et al., 2021). These family disruptions can lead to increased juvenile delinquency and involvement in the justice system.

Additionally, the lack of positive role models and community support can push minority youth toward criminal activity. High-crime neighborhoods, where many minority children grow up, expose them to deviant peer groups and negative influences (Feld, 2019). These environmental factors contribute to the perpetuation of DMC.

Challenges Confronted by Latino, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander Youngsters

While DMC affects various minority groups, it is essential to recognize the unique challenges faced by Latino, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander youngsters within the justice system.

Challenges for Latino Youth

Latino youth face several challenges in the juvenile justice system. Language barriers can impede communication with legal representatives and hinder their understanding of legal proceedings (Smith et al., 2021). Discriminatory practices, including racial profiling, can lead to higher arrest rates for Latino youth. Additionally, many Latino children come from immigrant families, which can compound their vulnerability within the system due to fear of deportation and family separation (Abrams, 2019).

Challenges for Native American Youth

Native American youth experience unique challenges within the juvenile justice system. High rates of poverty and limited access to education on reservations contribute to their involvement in the system (Feld, 2019). Moreover, the jurisdictional complexities of tribal lands can lead to confusion and disputes over legal authority, affecting the handling of juvenile cases (Smith et al., 2021). Cultural differences and the lack of culturally competent services further hinder positive outcomes for Native American youngsters.

Challenges for Asian and Pacific Islander Youth

Asian and Pacific Islander youth also confront specific challenges. The model minority stereotype often masks the struggles faced by many in this group, making it difficult to identify and address their unique needs within the juvenile justice system (Abrams, 2018). Moreover, cultural diversity within the Asian and Pacific Islander population can lead to a lack of culturally sensitive services, hindering effective rehabilitation and support for these youth (Feld, 2019).

Conclusion

Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) remains a pressing issue within the juvenile justice system, with children of color, including African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander youngsters, disproportionately represented at various stages of the process. Arrest, detention, adjudication, and confinement all contribute to the persistence of DMC. Cumulative disadvantage, stemming from socioeconomic disparities, educational inequities, and family and community factors, plays a crucial role in the perpetuation of DMC.

Recognizing the unique challenges faced by Latino, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander youth within the justice system is essential for developing effective strategies to address DMC. Language barriers, discrimination, jurisdictional complexities, and cultural diversity are among the challenges faced by these groups.

To combat DMC and its consequences, it is imperative to implement evidence-based policies and practices that address racial bias, promote diversion programs, and provide culturally competent services. Additionally, efforts should focus on addressing the root causes of cumulative disadvantage, including poverty, educational inequality, and family disruptions, to prevent minority youth from becoming entangled in the juvenile justice system in the first place. Ultimately, the goal should be to create a more equitable and just juvenile justice system that treats all youth fairly, regardless of their race or ethnicity.

References

Abrams, L. S. (2018). Racial disparities in juvenile justice processing: Examining the influence of defendant, victim, and case characteristics. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16(3), 257-277.

Abrams, L. S. (2019). Disproportionate minority contact and the school-to-prison pipeline: An examination of the impact of race and ethnicity on the processing of school-based arrests. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17(1), 58-77.

Feld, B. C. (2019). Race and juvenile court outcomes: Disproportionate minority confinement and case processing in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 56(5), 643-675.

Smith, C. R., Jones, A. S., & Williams, J. H. (2021). Examining racial disparities in the pretrial detention of juvenile defendants. Crime & Delinquency, 67(3-4), 537-560.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) in the juvenile justice system?

DMC refers to the overrepresentation of minority youth, such as African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian and Pacific Islander children, at various stages of the juvenile justice process.

Which stages of the juvenile justice process are most critical in generating DMC?

DMC can occur at various stages, including arrest, detention, adjudication, and confinement. Each of these stages contributes to the disproportionate treatment of children of color.

What are some factors contributing to the disproportionate arrest of children of color?

Factors contributing to the disproportionate arrest of minority youth include policing practices, racial profiling, neighborhood characteristics, and socioeconomic factors.

How does cumulative disadvantage contribute to DMC?

Cumulative disadvantage refers to the compounding effects of social, economic, and legal disadvantages faced by minority youth. It increases their likelihood of becoming involved in the juvenile justice system and perpetuates DMC.

What are the long-term consequences of DMC for minority youth?

Minority youth who experience DMC are more likely to face long-term negative consequences, including increased recidivism and further involvement in the adult criminal justice system.

Unraveling the Social Construction of Race: Implications for Equality and Inclusion

Introduction 

Ethnicity and race are two concepts that often intertwine but hold distinct meanings. While ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, language, and historical experiences, race has historically been used to categorize individuals based on physical attributes such as skin color and facial features. This essay aims to elucidate the differences between ethnicity and race and explore the notion that race is a social construction.

Distinguishing Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity and race are two distinct concepts that are often conflated but hold different meanings and characteristics. Understanding the differences between these concepts is essential for grasping the complexities of human identity and the social dynamics that shape them. Ethnicity refers to a shared cultural heritage, encompassing elements such as language, customs, traditions, and historical experiences (Cornell & Hartmann, 2019). It is rooted in a sense of belonging to a particular cultural or national group, often based on common ancestry or historical ties. Ethnicity is typically self-identified and can be fluid, allowing individuals to maintain multiple ethnic identities simultaneously. For instance, someone might identify as both African American and Irish American, reflecting their diverse cultural heritage.

In contrast, race primarily focuses on physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features (Morning, 2018). It is historically associated with the concept of biological differences between groups of people. However, it is crucial to recognize that race is not a scientifically valid concept. Genetic research has shown that human genetic variation occurs across a continuum rather than in discrete racial groups (Bolnick et al., 2019). In fact, the genetic variation within any racial group is often greater than the variation between different racial groups. Therefore, race is better understood as a social construct rather than a biological reality. The social construction of race has significant implications for how it is perceived and experienced. Racial categories and their meanings have varied across time and societies, reflecting social, political, and economic contexts. The historical context and power dynamics have influenced the construction and perpetuation of racial hierarchies, shaping the distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges (Bonilla-Silva, 2019). The social construction of race has resulted in systemic inequalities and disparities, which impact various aspects of individuals’ lives, including education, employment, healthcare, and criminal justice.

Ethnicity, being rooted in cultural practices and shared experiences, differs from race as it is not based solely on physical attributes. Ethnic identity is shaped by cultural traditions, languages spoken, and the historical experiences of a particular group. Ethnicity can be influenced by factors such as geographic location, migration patterns, and intercultural interactions. It is a subjective and self-identified aspect of identity that allows individuals to connect with their cultural heritage and communities. While ethnicity and race are distinct, they can intersect and influence one another. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals hold multiple identities that intersect and shape their experiences. For example, a person may identify as both African American (race) and Jamaican American (ethnicity), experiencing the intersections of racial and ethnic identities.

In conclusion, ethnicity and race are separate concepts that require differentiation to grasp the complexities of human identity. Ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, language, and historical experiences, while race primarily focuses on physical characteristics. Understanding race as a social construct challenges the notion of biological determinism and allows for critical analysis of the social, political, and historical factors that shape racial dynamics. Recognizing the fluidity and subjectivity of ethnicity and the social construction of race contributes to a more nuanced understanding of human diversity and the inequalities embedded within society.

 Race as a Social Construction

The assertion that race is a social construction emphasizes that the concept of race has been shaped by societal factors rather than grounded in biological reality. It is crucial to recognize that racial categories and their meanings have varied across time and societies, reflecting the prevailing social, political, and economic contexts. This section will explore several dimensions that illustrate the social construction of race.

Historical and Cultural Factors

Historical and cultural factors have significantly influenced the construction of race. The concept of race as it exists today emerged during the European colonial era, primarily driven by the need to justify slavery and colonization (Nobles, 2018). Racial categorizations were employed to create hierarchies, justifying the exploitation of certain groups and the subjugation of others. Over time, these racial categories were reinforced through legal frameworks, scientific theories, and social institutions, solidifying their societal impact.

Power and Privilege

Race has been intimately linked to power dynamics and social privilege. Racial classifications have often served to maintain social hierarchies, with certain racial groups holding more privilege and access to resources than others (Bonilla-Silva, 2019). This perpetuates systemic inequalities and disparities in areas such as education, employment, healthcare, and criminal justice. By recognizing race as a social construct, societies can challenge and dismantle these structures of power and privilege to foster greater equity and inclusivity.

Intersectionality and Multiple Identities

The social construction of race also intersects with other forms of identity, such as gender, class, and sexuality. Intersectionality highlights that individuals hold multiple identities that shape their experiences and interactions with society (Crenshaw, 2019). Acknowledging the social construction of race allows for a more nuanced understanding of how race intersects with other aspects of identity, leading to a more comprehensive analysis of social inequalities.

Conclusion 

In conclusion, ethnicity and race are distinct concepts, with ethnicity focusing on cultural heritage and race primarily concerning physical characteristics. Race is a social construction, meaning that it is a product of historical, cultural, and social processes rather than a biologically determined fact. Understanding race as a social construct enables us to critically examine the impact of racial categorizations on society, power dynamics, and privilege. By recognizing the fluidity and contextual nature of race, we can strive towards a more inclusive and equitable future that transcends the limitations imposed by racial classifications.

References

Bolnick, D. A., Fullwiley, D., Duster, T., Cooper, R. S., Fujimura, J. H., Kahn, J., Kaufman, J. S., Marks, J., Morning, A., Nelson, A., Ossorio, P., Reardon, J., Reverby, S. M., Shields, A. E., & Tallbear, K. (2019). The science and business of genetic ancestry testing. Science, 365(6455), 748-753.

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2019). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield.

Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D. (2019). Ethnicity and race: Making identities in a changing world. Sage Publications.

Crenshaw, K. W. (2019). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum.

Morning, A. (2018). The nature of race: How scientists think and teach about human difference. University of California Press.

Nobles, M. (2018). Shades of citizenship: Race and the census in modern politics. Stanford University Press.