Critically assess competing reasons why women might participate less in politics than men.

Below I have narrowed down some competing reasons that answer the question:
Why do women participate in politics less
Culture and socialisation
Overall gender roles and stereotypes
Socioeconomic resources: education, income, occupational status
Group membership: participation in civic society, sports clubs, labor unions, etc
Nationall level explanations: level of economic developments, women’s participation in labor mark
Women as role models: symbolic representation
Women of all ages are more likely to discuss politics and younger women become more politically active when there are more women in parliament (Wolbrecht and Campbell 2007(
Institutional factors (kettles and schwinddt bayer 2012)
Gender quotas: women’s likelihood of trying to persuade others, work for a political campaign, and contact politicians is significantly higher in countries
What are the consequences?
Representation requres pparticipation
Women appear to have somewhat different policy, priorities, and preferences than men
In order to convey their political preferences to the representatives, citizens need to participate in politics (bums, schiozman and verba 2001)
Seemingly small differences between men and women en translate into millions fewer phone calls, voices at political meetings, and party meetings from women, relate to male citizens
If women engage in more individual private actions, but politicians pay more attention to the collective, public actions men are more likely to engage in policy decisions might reflect men’s demands more than women
Thus as long as gender gaps in political participation are prominent, the policymaking process remains gendered

you can use sources from (Wolbrecht and Camp bell 2007) and (bums, schiozman and verbal 2001) but please make sure to look for an article from a woman of color.

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