Coming of Age Rituals
MIcrolecture
Biological models of gender differences often rely on a Western ideal, ignoring cross-cultural variations of gender differences. Anthropologists such as Margaret Mead, who presented evidence that gender expectations in other cultures differ from the Western model, challenge this ideal.
Although differences are not universal, from an anthropological perspective, analyses of gender have identified two common constructions across cultures: men and women are differentiated and often segregated, as in the labor force, but this division is different for each culture. The other common construction is male domination, which was commonly determined by cultural traditions, even though the myth of biological determinism was used as an explanation for them. There are varied explanations for this persisted domination, in particular in the labor force, including the discussion by Marx and Engels about surplus or the relation of men and women with children.
Across cultures, higher status for women was determined by several factors, including access to child care, a child’s relationship and time spent with the father, greater control of resources, and property ownership. Segregation of men and women, in contrast, increased inequality, which included a greater likelihood of violence (rape) against women that is used to maintain gender inequality and ultimately male power.
Rituals offer a slightly different understanding of gender inequality because they are often symbols of gender inequity. Circumcision rituals for both males and females tend to occur in societies in which men have more power because they promote notions of difference and segregation that promote inequality. Other rituals, such as couvade (males’ experiencing symbolic pregnancy) and purdah (hiding oneself), control women.
An important issue in the cross-cultural discussion is the existence of multiple genders in other societies. Other genders challenge not only the existence of a biological dichotomy but also the hierarchy of gender because the other genders are often not marginalized in the societies in which they exist. As well, sexuality has not always been explicitly linked to the other genders. In fact, although homosexuality is common among both humans and nonhumans, it is the social response to homosexuality that differs across cultures, with some accepting it as a standard practice. In conjunction with this idea, heterosexual sexual practices also differ across cultures in acceptability, timing, place, and the roles of the partners.
Ultimately, so much cross-cultural variation of gender, gender divisions, and sexuality raises questions about present theoretical explanations of male dominance. And still, even with the pervasive social dominance of men, the experiences within each culture can be best understood through cultural relativism.
Learning objectives:
1. to be able to name cross-cultural evidence that male domination, sex-based division of labor, and particular forms of gender differentiation are not biologically inevitable
4. to be able to name some of the hallmark factors associated with societies that feature gender inequality and male domination
5. to understand the cross-cultural evidence that may change the way we consider issues such as rape, male and female circumcision, binary gender, and homosexuality
Assignment
1. For male circumcision, use the following topic: Should we continue to engage in male circumcision or make it more optional in Western society? Go beyond the popular idea of circumcision for health and hygienic
purposes.
2. For FGC, Female Genital Cutting: should we as a society step in and stop any female circumcision in other cultures, or do we have a right to stop what is part of another culture? Why are these rituals used in a society?
To illuminate your argument, you can also discuss other rituals, such as becoming a man and becoming a woman, and then compare with the rituals in our society.
Give your own opinion, backed up with citations from the readings. (Readings
are attached)
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