Under the reign of Octavian, grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, explain how he initiated and carried out the Pax Romana (Roman Peace ) from 3B.C.E.-180 B.C.E.
Read pages 72-73. Please view Figures 3.3, 3.4. on pages 72-73. View video for your support and details in answering this question.
Answer is a Maximum of 2 paragraphs.
heres the youtube link: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/roman-empire-survey/v/ara-pacis-augustae-altar-of-augustan-peace-13-9-b-c-e-rome
page : 72-73:
The Collapse of the Republic
(13330 b.c.e.)
By the beginning of the first millennium c.e., Rome had become the watchdog of the ancient world. Roman imperialism, however, worked to effect changes within the Republic itself. By its authority to handle all military matters, the Senate became increasingly powerful, as did a new class of men, wealthy Roman entrepreneurs who filled the jobs of provincial administration. The army, by its domination of Romes overseas provinces, also became more powerful. Precious metals, booty, and slaves from foreign conquests brought enormous wealth to army generals and influential patricians; corruption became widespread. Captives of war were shipped back to Rome and auctioned off to the highest bidders, usually patrician landowners, whose farms soon became large-scale plantations (latifundia) worked by slaves. The increased agricultural productivity of the plantations gave economic advantage to large landowners who easily undersold the lesser landowners and drove them out of business. Increasingly, the small farmers were forced to sell their farms to neighboring patricians in return for the right to remain on the land. Or, they simply moved to the city to join, by the end of the first century b.c.e., a growing unemployed population. The disappearance of the small farmer signaled the decline of the Republic.
Although Romes rich citizens grew richer and its poor citizens poorer, the patricians fiercely resisted efforts to redistribute wealth more equally. Reform measures failed and political rivalries increased. Ultimately, Rome fell victim to the ambitions of army generals, who, having conquered in the name of Rome, now turned to conquering Rome itself. The first century b.c.e. was an age of military dictators, whose competing claims to power fueled a spate of civil wars. As bloody confrontations replaced reasoned compromises, the Republic crumbled.
In 46 b.c.e., the extraordinary army commander Gaius Julius Caesar (Figure 3.3) triumphantly entered the city of Rome and established a dictatorship. Caesar, who had spent nine years conquering Gaul (present-day France and Belgium), was as shrewd in politics as he was brilliant in war. These campaigns are described in his prose Commentaries on the Gallic War. His brief but successful campaigns in Syria, Asia Minor, and Egyptwhere his union with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra (6930 b.c.e.) produced a soninspired his famous boast: Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). A superb organizer, Caesar took strong measures to restabilize Rome: He reformed and consolidated the laws, regulated taxation, reduced debts, sent large numbers of the unemployed proletariat to overseas colonies, and inaugurated public works projects. He also granted citizenship to non-Italians and reformed the Western calendar to comprise 365 days and twelve months (one of whichJulyhe named after himself). Threatened by Caesars populist reforms and his contempt for republican institutions, an angry group of his senatorial opponents, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated him in 44 b.c.e.
Figure 3.3 Bust of Julius Caesar, first century b.c.e. Green schist, height 16 in. Despite Caesars inglorious death, the name Caesar would be used as an honorific title by all his imperial successors well into the second century c.e., as well as by many modern-day dictators.
Staatliche Museen, Berlin. Photo Juergen Liepe/BPK Bildagentur/Art Resource, NY.
The Roman Empire: Pax Romana
(30 b.c.e.180 c.e.)
Following the assassination of Julius Caesar, a struggle for power ensued between Caesars first lieutenant, Mark Antony (ca. 8030 b.c.e.), and his grandnephew (and adopted son) Octavian (63 b.c.e.14 c.e.). The contest between the two was resolved at Actium in 31 b.c.e., when Octavians navy routed the combined forces of Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra. The alliance between Antony and Cleopatra, like that between Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, advanced the political ambitions of Egypts most seductive queen, who sought not only to unite the eastern and western portions of Romes great empire, but also to govern a vast Roman world state. That destiny, however, would fall to Octavian.
In 43 b.c.e., Octavian usurped the consulship and gained the approval of the Senate to rule for life. Although he called himself first citizen (princeps), his title of Emperor betrayed the reality that he was first and foremost Romes army general (imperator). After the Roman Senate bestowed on him the title Augustus (the Revered One) in 27 b.c.e., he was known by that honorific title (Figure 3.4). Augustus shared legislative power with the Senate, but retained the right to veto legislation. Thus, to all intents and purposes, the Republic was defunct. The destiny of Rome lay once again in the hands of a military dictator.
Figure 3.4 Augustus of Primaporta, early first century c.e., after a bronze of ca. 20 b.c.e. Marble, height 6 ft. 8 in. In this freestanding, larger-than-life statue from Primaporta, Augustus raises his arm in a gesture of leadership and imperial authority (see also Figure 3.1). He wears a breastplate celebrating his victory over the Parthians in 20 b.c.e. At his feet appear Cupid and a dolphin, reminders of his alleged divine descent from Venusthe mother of Aeneas, Romes legendary founder. Augustus stance and physical proportions are modeled on the Doryphorus by Polycleitus (see Figure 2.21). His handsome face and tall, muscular physique serve to complete the heroic image. In reality, however, Augustus was 5 feet 4 inches tallthe average height of the Roman male.
Vatican Museums, Rome. Photo Scala/Art Resource, NY.
Augustus reign ushered in an era of peace and stability, a Pax Romana (Roman peace). From 30 b.c.e. to 180 c.e., the Roman peace prevailed throughout the Empire, and Rome enjoyed active commercial contact with all parts of the civilized world, including India and China. The Pax Romana was also a time of artistic and literary productivity. An enthusiastic patron of the arts, Augustus commissioned literature, sculpture,
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and architecture. He boasted that he had come to power when Rome was a city of brick and would leave it a city of marble. In most cases, this meant a veneer of marble that was, by standard Roman building practices, laid over the brick surface. In a city blighted by crime, noise, poor hygiene, and a frequent scarcity of food and water, Augustus initiated many new public works (including three new aqueducts and some 500 fountains) and such civic services as a police force and a fire department. The reign of Augustus also witnessed the birth of a new religion, Christianity, which, in later decades, would spread throughout the Empire (see page 103).
Augustus put an end to the civil wars of the preceding century, but he revived neither the political nor the social equilibrium of the early Republic. Following his death, Rome continued to be ruled by military officials. Since there was no machinery for succession to the imperial throne, Romes rulers held office until they either died or were assassinated. Government by and for the people had been the hallmark of Romes early history, but the enterprise of imperialism ultimately overtook these lofty republican ideals.
Roman Law
Against this backdrop of conquest and dominion, it is no surprise that Romes contributions to the history of culture were practical rather than theoretical. The sheer size of the Roman Empire inspired engineering programs, such as bridge and road building, that united all regions under Roman rule. Lawa less tangible means of unificationwas equally important in this regard. The development of a system of law was one of Romes most original landmark achievements.
Roman law (the Latin jus means both law and justice) evolved out of the practical need to rule a world state, rather thanas in ancient Greeceas the product of a dialectic between the citizen and the polis. Inspired by the laws of Solon, the Romans published their first civil code, the Twelve Tables of Law, in 450 b.c.e. They placed these twelve bronze tablets on view in the Forum, the public meeting area for the civic, religious, and commercial activities of Rome. The Twelve Tables remained Romes basic legal code for almost a thousand years. To this body of law were added the acts of the Assembly and the Senate, and public decrees of the emperors. For some 500 years, praetors (magistrates who administered justice) and jurisconsults (experts in the law) interpreted the laws, bringing commonsense resolutions to private disputes. Their interpretations constituted a body of case law. In giving consideration to individual needs, these magistrates cultivated the concept of equity, which put the spirit of the law above the letter of the law. The decisions of Roman jurists became precedents that established comprehensive guidelines for future judgments. Thus, Roman law was not fixed, but was an evolving body of opinions on the nature and dispensation of justice.
