Cold War Covert Operations

Explain U.S. covert involvement in Southern Europe, Central America, Southeast Asia, and in the Middle East during the Cold War.

***NOTES/REFERNCES***
The Eisenhower Era

Dwight D. Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States who served from 1953 to 1961. Prior to his presidency, Eisenhower was a U.S. Army, five-star general who served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. His military experience expanded his role of presidential affairs in which he used military tactics to achieve specific goals. More specifically, President Eisenhower wanted to strengthen foreign policy relations, especially after the death of Joseph Stalin.

Because of President Eisenhower’s strong military background, foreign policy was the center focus of his presidency. He ensured the Department of State was “a part of the National Security Council’s structured system of integrated policy review” and worked closely with his Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles (Office of the Historian n.d.). Communism was also a focus in Eisenhower and Foster’s foreign policy matters and were either part of the “Free World” or part of the “Soviet bloc” (Office of the Historian n.d.).

Eisenhower and Communism

Though the president wanted to strengthen global relations, he was not afraid to threaten nuclear aggression to communist actors or those that wanted negatively impacted American and global security. This was part of his campaign to deter the spread of communism throughout the world. President Eisenhower brought an innovative perspective to American national security:

· Maintaining the vitality of the U.S. economy while still building sufficient strength to prosecute the Cold War.
· Relying on nuclear weapons to deter communist aggression of, if necessary, to fight a war.

· Using the CIA to carry out secret or covert actions against governments or leaders “directly or indirectly responsive to Soviet”.
· Strengthening allies and winning the friendship or nonaligned governments.

President Eisenhower sanctioned covert operations to defeat ill-disposed governments (such as anti-communist governments) and/or those that were against communism. He approved the CIA to formalize specific missions against these governments to ensure they did not expand their sociopolitical ideologies (CIA n.d.). Additionally, President Eisenhower established national security initiatives that would mitigate nuclear warfare objectives. Additionally, he implemented national security policy that was predicated on strategic nuclear weapons to prevent potential threats from Warsaw Pact nations.

The Soviet Union’s global stance to spread communism was a reality and President Eisenhower devised a plan to mitigate it. He accepted a doctrine of containment (to stop an enemy) and established a covert operation that was perpetrated by the CIA to obstruct communist groups throughout the world. For example, the CIA was involved in the 1953 Iranian coup to overthrow the elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh and provoked the 1954 Guatemalan coup to overthrow President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman.

In hindsight, some say the Eisenhower administration may have taken it too far with the policy of containment. During his tenure, Eisenhower approved multiple mutual agreements to contain the Soviet Union—even with another “cold” country, China. According to the Office of the Historian, President Eisenhower secured treaties such as the Central Treaty Organization, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, bilateral defense or security treaties with Japan, South Korea, the Republic of China, and the Philippines.

President Eisenhower’s strategies may have been considered harsh, but those who supported his reasoning believed it was for the betterment of the world, politically and peacefully. The expansion of communism was believed to be global disgrace and harmful to humanity and security. Containment and covert operations mitigated the spread of communism and afford the opportunity for democratic government governance.

For President Eisenhower efforts, communism did not make its global spread and with a strong Secretary of State as John Foster Dulles, the reiteration of condemning communism ensured that it was not welcome throughout the world. Secretary Dulles was the “most prominent advocate of global containment and he traveled tirelessly to ensure its success” (Office of the Historian n.d.). He supported covert operations to prevent communist government from infiltrating democratic societies and took stands against governments that attempted to do so.

The Iran-Contra Affair

The Iran-Contra Affair was an American operative authorized under President Ronald Reagan’s administration. Iran was under investigation and in the middle of an arms embargo, and under Regan’s administration, senior leadership surreptitiously sold arms to the country. As part of the plan, the administration hoped to fund Contras, an extremist group that opposed the socialist Sandista Junta of National Reconstruction government in Nicaragua. The American government anticipated by conducting this operation, they could pay the group and release American hostages that were held captive in Nicaragua. Through Congress, the Boland Amendment (limiting funding to Contras) prohibited further financing to the group.

Seven American hostages were held captive by Shi’a Islamic paramilitary/terrorist group, Hezbollah. At the time, the group had Iranian ties to the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution. Purportedly, Israel was to ship weapons to Iran and United States would replenish those arms while receiving the country’s payment. In turn, Iran was to make sure the hostages were released.

By 1985, the plan was amended, and as a result, portions of the sales funded Contras, which opposed the Nicaraguan government. United States Marine Corps senior officer, Oliver North, was responsible for the large overhaul, which was supported by President Reagan. While there were questions on how much President Ronald Reagan knew of and approved the deal, the general consensus was that what occurred with the Iranian initiative and on behalf of the contras was well known by the President.

Additionally, it was rumored former Secretary of Defense, Caspar Weinberger had written notes, which indicated that President Reagan knew about sale of arms to Iran and the hostage transfer. He mentioned that President Reagan said, “he could answer to charges of illegality but couldn’t answer to the charge that ‘big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to free hostages” (The National Security Archive 2006).

Once the weapons deal went public, President Reagan made a public announcement and admitted the weapons deal but emphasized that it was not in exchange for the hostages.

In 1986, As a result, the scandal ensued as a significant number of documents were destroyed to conceal what really happened. Additionally, the Reagan administration refused to disclose the documents that were left. A year later, President Reagan publicly announced to the American public about the scandal, taking full responsibility of what happened. He stated, “What began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages” (Reagan Library 1987, 5).

Following the address, multiple investigations followed (including the Tower Commission). There was not any evidence found that President Reagan knew anything of extracurricular events involved in the arms sales and hostage transfer. U.S. Congress found that the sale to Iran was not a criminal offense, but four individuals were charged with financially supporting the contras (i.e. John M. Poindexter, Olive North, Richard, V. Secord, and Albert Hakim). They were charged with attempting to defraud the United States.

References

CIA. (n.d.). But what laws were broken? Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000705980001-5.pdf (accessed on 12 March 2018).

Office of the Historian. (n.d.). Foreign policy under President Eisenhower. Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/Eisenhower (accessed on 11 March 2018).

The National Security Archive. (2006). The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 210. Retrieved from https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm (accessed on 12 March 2018).

The Ronald Reagan Library. (1987). Address to the nation on the Iran arms and contra aid controversy. Retrieved from https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/archives/speeches/1987/030487h.htm (accessed 12 March 2018).

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