Instructions: You are writing a 10-12 page essay, typed, double-spaced including a bibliography (works cited page) and title page. You are required to cite readings, lectures, and film clips/films from each week (Week #1 – 5). You should have a minimum of 10 sources –from a variety of class sources (e-lectures, readings, links, videos, optional class meetings, discussions, etc.). Please upload a docx., doc., or PDF.
Please choose one of the three following assignments to write your final paper for the course.
Option One:
If you choose this question, you will be preparing a research proposal on how you will be going about conducting a research project. First, please use your readings and lectures to design your sociological research project proposal. Select a topic. Define the problem. What two variables will you be examining? Conceptualize and operationalize your variables.
Select a research method or methods to collect data. How will you go about collecting data? Will you use qualitative or quantitative or both types of methods? Why are these methods best at getting at your research questions? What are the ethical questions you will ask? What is your hypothesis? What types of measures will you use? How will you insure reliability and validity? Discuss the importance of your literature review (provide at least 3 outside sources of related literature review materials). What theoretical perspectives will you use? Will you employ inductive or deductive reasoning? How will you analyze your data? Will you use primary or secondary sources (or both)? Is your study a theoretical study? Is your study an empirically-based study? What is the timeline of your research? Do you anticipate any costs for this research project? What are the sociological implications of your selected study and research proposal?
The following are examples of research projects and problematizing your research topics (“defining the problem”). They are ideas and examples (NOT what you are supposed to write about). You must come up with your own “research topic” to write a proposal about.
Example #1: Defunding the police will provide alternative ways to policing and therefore mitigate police misuse of excessive force. This research project will examine what “defunding” the police means and what the sociological implications of “defunding” an institution such as the police force would mean in society. This is a proposal that will outline how this research will take place and what expectations the project brings.
Example #2: Wearing masks has become a politicized issue. Those who identify as “Republicans” or self-identify as “conservative” tend to dismiss the significance of the mask-wearing as mitigating the spread of Covid-19, whereas those who either identify as “Democrats” or self-identify as “liberal” or “progressive” tend to support mask-wearing as a way to combat the spread of Covid-19 and help decrease the infection rates. This proposal will outline how to people politically identify correlates with their propensity to wear masks during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Example #3: Marijuana use among college students marijuana use among college students has decreased since it has become legalized. The popular notion and argument against legalizing marijuana is that it will become rampant and that it serves as a gateway drug for other “hard drugs.” This study will examine if college students are using more now that it has become legally. And further, this study will see if “more marijuana use” is detrimental to the academic performance of college students. This proposal will put forth a study on “marijuana use” among college students.
Example #4: Being on social media for over 3 hours a day for children under 12 whose brains have not developed has detrimental impact on their self-identities –how they see themselves in relationship to other people. This research project will examine the role of social media on children under 12 years of age. Because the brain is still developing at age 12 yet children who are in this delicate preteen age has a conscious awareness of the world beyond “the self,” the effects of social media exposure on these preteens and how they view themselves in relationship to others will be explored in terms of race and gender. This research proposal will put forth how this research will take place and what the sociological implications are.
https://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/analytical.methods/ResearchProposal.html
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https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal
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Writing a Research Proposal – Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper – Research Guides at University of Southern California
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Common Mistakes to Avoid. Failure to be concise.A research proposal must be focused and not be “all over the map” or diverge into on unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.; Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
libguides.usc.edu
Option Two:
Please develop a thesis if you choose this option. What is the significance of doing sociological research? What are the ways of knowing? Discuss at least four “ways of knowing.” How does sociology fit into these “ways of knowing?” Incorporate in your analysis how “objective knowledge” and “subjective knowledge” play a role. How would you incorporate the sociological imagination into your sociological research topic? Give some examples. What makes sociology a science? How is a sociological understanding of the world different from opinions? How do sociologists makes sense of dialectics when conducting research.
Option Three:
Research two sociological and/or social scientific studies that have already been conducted. Compare and contrast these studies. What are the purposes of these studies? What were the hypotheses of these studies?
How did the researchers define the problem. What variables were being examined? How did he/she/they conceptualize and operationalize his/her/their variables? What research method/methods were used to collect data? Did he/she/they use qualitative or quantitative methods? What were they? Were they effective? Were the research projects valid? reliable? What ethical questions were they grappling with, if any? What types of measures did they use? Did they utilize inductive and deductive reasoning? How did they analyze their data? Did they use primary or secondary sources (or both)? Were these studies empirically-based? Did they include human subjects? What were the main findings? How important were these findings? What societal implications did these studies have? How would you do your study differently if you were to select a similar topic? Or how would you build on the studies already conducted?
https://www.thoughtco.com/sociological-imagination-3026756
https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapt*er/chapter-2-sociological-research/
https://sites.google.com/a/narrativebioethics.com/emhr/contact/the-tearoom-trade-study-1
http://www.drjkoch.org/Intro/Readings/Humphreys.htm
https://www.simplypsychology.org/zimbardo.html
https://www.prisonexp.org/
https://www.newyorker.com/science/maria-konnikova/the-real-lesson-of-the-stanford-prison-experiment
https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html
Laud Humphreys' Tearoom Trade: The Best and Worst of Sociology?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LviGTHud5w
https://www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study
https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/index.html
https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/index.html
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/06/tuskegee-study-medical-distrust-research/487439/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYOBYPiVfoI&t=37s
https://sexinfo.soc.ucsb.edu/article/tearoom-trade
https://content.csbs.utah.edu/~fan/fcs3200/slides/chapter05.pdf
https://www.orau.gov/cdcynergy/soc2web/content/phase05/phase05_step03_deeper_qualitative_and_quantitative.htm
https://www.aiuniv.edu/blog/2012/october/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
by Raimo Streefkere (2019-2020)
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research
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deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative researc
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h deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
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Qualitative research
Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.
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The differences between quantitative and qualitative research
Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods
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to collect and analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions.
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or hypothesis
Analyzed through math and statistical analysis
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Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and interpreting
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables Mainly expressed in words
Requires many respondents Requires few respondents
Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions
Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity, replicability Key terms: understanding, context, complexity, subjectivity
Data collection methods
Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection
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method that will help answer your research question(s).
Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observations or case studies
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, your data can be represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).
However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.
Quantitative data collection methods
Surveys
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: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample
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(online, in person, or over the phone).
Experiments
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: Situation in which variables
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are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.
Qualitative data collection methods
Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
Ethnography
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: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
Literature review
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: Survey of published works by other authors.
When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research
A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:
Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis)
Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)
For most research topics
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you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach. Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach
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; your research question(s)
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; whether you’re doing experimental
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, correlational
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, or descriptive research
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; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.
Research question
How satisfied are students with their studies?
Quantitative research approach
You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how satisfied are your with your professors?”
You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on average students rated their professors 4.4”.
Qualitative research approach
You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the study program?”
Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You transcribe all interviews using transcription software
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and try to find commonalities and patterns.
Mixed methods approach
You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.
It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to better understand the reasons behind the trends.
How to analyze qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.
Analyzing quantitative data
Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.
Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:
Average scores
The number of times a particular answer was given
The correlation
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or causation between two or more variables
The reliability and validity
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of the results
Analyzing qualitative data
Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.
Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:
Qualitative content analysis
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: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
Thematic analysis
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: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
Discourse analysis
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: Studying how communication works in social contexts
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01735434/document
https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/savvy/introtosociology/Documents/Persell%20Methods%20Reading11.htm
Generalizability
In designing their study, researchers have to think about generalizability, the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part. There are many factors to consider depending on the research design used. With surveys, if a sample is random, if almost all subjects agree to participate, and if the response rate for every question is high, we can say that the sample is representative of the targeted population and that the findings are generalizable to that population. With observation research, on the other hand, the findings are generalizable to the group or setting studied, but it is difficult to generalize beyond that setting.
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Generalizability and Transferability
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Source: WAC ClearingHouse Resources
Interrelationships between generalizabililty and transferability, of research findings
Generalizability is applied by researchers in an academic setting. It can be defined as the extension of research findings and conclusions from a study conducted on a sample population to the population at large. While the dependability of this extension is not absolute, it is statistically probable. Because sound generalizability requires data on large populations, quantitative research — experimental for instance — provides the best foundation for producing broad generalizability. The larger the sample population, the more one can generalize the results. For example, a comprehensive study of the role computers play in the writing process might reveal that it is statistically probable that students who do most of their composing on a computer will move chunks of text around more than students who do not compose on a computer.
Transferability is applied by the readers of research. Although generalizability usually applies only to certain types of quantitative methods, transferability can apply in varying degrees to most types of research . Unlike generalizability, transferability does not involve broad claims, but invites readers of research to make connections between elements of a study and their own experience. For instance, teachers at the high school level might selectively apply to their own classrooms results from a study demonstrating that heuristic writing exercises help students at the college level.
Interrelationships
Generalizability and transferability are important elements of any research methodology, but they are not mutually exclusive: generalizability, to varying degrees, rests on the transferability of research findings. It is important for researchers to understand the implications of these twin aspects of research before designing a study. Researchers who intend to make a generalizable claim must carefully examine the variables involved in the study. Among these are the sample of the population used and the mechanisms behind formulating a causal model. Furthermore, if researchers desire to make the results of their study transferable to another context, they must keep a detailed account of the environment surrounding their research, and include a rich description of that environment in their final report. Armed with the knowledge that the sample population was large and varied, as well as with detailed information about the study itself, readers of research can more confidently generalize and transfer the findings to other situations.
Generalizability
Generalizability is not only common to research, but to everyday life as well. In this section, we establish a practical working definition of generalizability as it is applied within and outside of academic research. We also define and consider three different types of generalizability and some of their probable applications. Finally, we discuss some of the possible shortcomings and limitations of generalizability that researchers must be aware of when constructing a study they hope will yield potentially generalizable results.
Definition
In many ways, generalizability amounts to nothing more than making predictions based on a recurring experience. If something occurs frequently, we expect that it will continue to do so in the future. Researchers use the same type of reasoning when generalizing about the findings of their studies. Once researchers have collected sufficient data to support a hypothesis, a premise regarding the behavior of that data can be formulated, making it generalizable to similar circumstances. Because of its foundation in probability, however, such a generalization cannot be regarded as conclusive or exhaustive.
While generalizability can occur in informal, nonacademic settings, it is usually applied only to certain research methods in academic studies. Quantitative methods allow some generalizability. Experimental research, for example, often produces generalizable results. However, such experimentation must be rigorous in order for generalizable results to be found.
Example
An example of generalizability in everyday life involves driving. Operating an automobile in traffic requires that drivers make assumptions about the likely outcome of certain actions. When approaching an intersection where one driver is preparing to turn left, the driver going straight through the intersection assumes that the left-turning driver will yield the right of way before turning. The driver passing through the intersection applies this assumption cautiously, recognizing the possibility that the other driver might turn prematurely.
American drivers also generalize that everyone will drive on the right hand side of the road. Yet if we try to generalize this assumption to other settings, such as England, we will be making a potentially disastrous mistake. Thus, it is obvious that generalizing is necessary for forming coherent interpretations in many different situations, but we do not expect our generalizations to operate the same way in every circumstance. With enough evidence we can make predictions about human behavior, yet we must simultaneously recognize that our assumptions are based on statistical probability.
Consider this example of generalizable research in the field of English studies. A study on undergraduate instructor evaluations of composition instructors might reveal that there is a strong correlation between the grade students are expecting to earn in a course and whether they give their instructor high marks. The study might discover that 95% of students who expect to receive a “C” or lower in their class give their instructor a rating of “average” or below. Therefore, there would be a high probability that future students expecting a “C” or lower would not give their instructor high marks. However, the results would not necessarily be conclusive. Some students might defy the trend. In addition, a number of different variables could also influence students’ evaluations of an instructor, including instructor experience, class size, and relative interest in a particular subject. These variables — and others — would have to be addressed in order for the study to yield potentially valid results. However, even if virtually all variables were isolated, results of the study would not be 100% conclusive. At best, researchers can make educated predictions of future events or behaviors, not guarantee the prediction in every case. Thus, before generalizing, findings must be tested through rigorous experimentation, which enables researchers to confirm or reject the premises governing their data set.
Considerations
There are three types of generalizability that interact to produce probabilistic models. All of them involve generalizing a treatment or measurement to a population outside of the original study. Researchers who wish to generalize their claims should try to apply all three forms to their research, or the strength of their claims will be weakened (Runkel & McGrath, 1972).
In one type of generalizability, researchers determine whether a specific treatment will produce the same results in different circumstances. To do this, they must decide if an aspect within the original environment, a factor beyond the treatment, generated the particular result. This will establish how flexibly the treatment adapts to new situations. Higher adaptability means that the treatment is generalizable to a greater variety of situations. For example, imagine that a new set of heuristic prewriting questions designed to encourage freshman college students to consider audience more fully works so well that the students write thoroughly developed rhetorical analyses of their target audiences. To responsibly generalize that this heuristic is effective, a researcher would need to test the same prewriting exercise in a variety of educational settings at the college level, using different teachers, students, and environments. If the same positive results are produced, the treatment is generalizable.
A second form of generalizability focuses on measurements rather than treatments. For a result to be considered generalizable outside of the test group, it must produce the same results with different forms of measurement. In terms of the heuristic example above, the findings will be more generalizable if the same results are obtained when assessed “with questions having a slightly different wording, or when we use a six-point scale instead of a nine-point scale” (Runkel & McGrath, 1972, p.46).
A third type of generalizability concerns the subjects of the test situation. Although the results of an experiment may be internally valid, that is, applicable to the group tested, in many situations the results cannot be generalized beyond that particular group. Researchers who hope to generalize their results to a larger population should ensure that their test group is relatively large and randomly chosen. However, researchers should consider the fact that test populations of over 10,000 subjects do not significantly increase generalizability (Firestone,1993).
Potential Limitations
No matter how carefully these three forms of generalizability are applied, there is no absolute guarantee that the results obtained in a study will occur in every situation outside the study. In order to determine causal relationships in a test environment, precision is of utmost importance. Yet if researchers wish to generalize their findings, scope and variance must be emphasized over precision. Therefore, it becomes difficult to test for precision and generalizability simultaneously, since a focus on one reduces the reliability of the other. One solution to this problem is to perform a greater number of observations, which has a dual effect: first, it increases the sample population, which heightens generalizability; second, precision can be reasonably maintained because the random errors between observations will average out (Runkel and McGrath, 1972).
Transferability
Transferability describes the process of applying the results of research in one situation to other similar situations. In this section, we establish a practical working definition of transferability as it’s applied within and outside of academic research. We also outline important considerations researchers must be aware of in order to make their results potentially transferable, as well as the critical role the reader plays in this process. Finally, we discuss possible shortcomings and limitations of transferability that researchers must be aware of when planning and conducting a study that will yield potentially transferable results.
Definition
Transferability is a process performed by readers of research. Readers note the specifics of the research situation and compare them to the specifics of an environment or situation with which they are familiar. If there are enough similarities between the two situations, readers may be able to infer that the results of the research would be the same or similar in their own situation. In other words, they “transfer” the results of a study to another context. To do this effectively, readers need to know as much as possible about the original research situation in order to determine whether it is similar to their own. Therefore, researchers must supply a highly detailed description of their research situation and methods.
Results of any type of research method can be applied to other situations, but transferability is most relevant to qualitative research methods such as ethnography and case studies. Reports based on these research methods are detailed and specific. However, because they often consider only one subject or one group, researchers who conduct such studies seldom generalize the results to other populations. The detailed nature of the results, however, makes them ideal for transferability.
Example
Transferability is easy to understand when you consider that we are constantly applying this concept to aspects of our daily lives. If, for example, you are an inexperienced composition instructor and you read a study in which a veteran writing instructor discovered that extensive prewriting exercises helped students in her classes come up with much more narrowly defined paper topics, you could ask yourself how much the instructor’s classroom resembled your own. If there were many similarities, you might try to draw conclusions about how increasing the amount of prewriting your students do would impact their ability to arrive at sufficiently narrow paper topics. In doing so, you would be attempting to transfer the composition researcher’s techniques to your own classroom.
An example of transferable research in the field of English studies is Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman’s (1988) study of a graduate student in a rhetoric Ph.D. program. In this case study, the researchers describe in detail a graduate student’s entrance into the language community of his academic program, and particularly his struggle learning the writing conventions of this community. They make conclusions as to why certain things might have affected the graduate student, “Nate,” in certain ways, but they are unable to generalize their findings to all graduate students in rhetoric Ph.D. programs. It is simply one study of one person in one program. However, from the level of detail the researchers provide, readers can take certain aspects of Nate’s experience and apply them to other contexts and situations. This is transferability. First-year graduate students who read the Berkenhotter, Huckin, and Ackerman study may recognize similarities in their own situation while professors may recognize difficulties their students are having and understand these difficulties a bit better. The researchers do not claim that their results apply to other situations. Instead, they report their findings and make suggestions about possible causes for Nate’s difficulties and eventual success. Readers then look at their own situation and decide if these causes may or may not be relevant.
Considerations
When designing a study researchers have to consider their goals: Do they want to provide limited information about a broad group in order to indicate trends or patterns? Or do they want to provide detailed information about one person or small group that might suggest reasons for a particular behavior? The method they choose will determine the extent to which their results can be transferred since transferability is more applicable to certain kinds of research methods than others.
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When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened family members, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms.
The crime during a full moon discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions. If the human behaviors around those claims were tested systematically, a police officer, for example, could write a report and offer the findings to sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbors and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it’s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide.
Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.
The Scientific Method
Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.
However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.
The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scholarship.
The scientific method is an essential tool in research.
But just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to knowledge they did not have before—knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of rituals and beliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes. No matter what research approach they use, researchers want to maximize the study’s reliability, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group. Researchers also strive for validity, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. Returning to the crime rate during a full moon topic, reliability of a study would reflect how well the resulting experience represents the average adult crime rate during a full moon. Validity would ensure that the study’s design accurately examined what it was designed to study, so an exploration of adult criminal behaviors during a full moon should address that issue and not veer into other age groups’ crimes, for example.
In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.
Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in—but not attached to—the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This doesn’t mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study.
With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963).
Typically, the scientific method starts with these steps—1) ask a question, 2) research existing sources, 3) formulate a hypothesis—described below.
Ask a Question
The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. That said, happiness and hygiene are worthy topics to study. Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these questions in better research terms.
That is why sociologists are careful to define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?” When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop an operational definition, that is, they define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner.
The operational definition must be valid, appropriate, and meaningful. And it must be reliable, meaning that results will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person. For example, “good drivers” might be defined in many ways: those who use their turn signals, those who don’t speed, or those who courteously allow others to merge. But these driving behaviors could be interpreted differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure. Alternatively, “a driver who has never received a traffic violation” is a specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same information, so it is an effective operational definition.
Research Existing Sources
The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized.
To study hygiene and its value in a particular society, a researcher might sort through existing research and unearth studies about child-rearing, vanity, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and cultural attitudes toward beauty. It’s important to sift through this information and determine what is relevant. Using existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve studies’ designs.
Formulate a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. In research, independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the effect, or thing that is changed.
For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?
Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables. Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.
Hypothesis Independent Variable Dependent Variable
The greater the availability of affordable housing, the lower the homeless rate. Affordable Housing Homeless Rate
The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher the math grades. Math Tutoring Math Grades
The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the neighborhood. Police Patrol Presence Safer Neighborhood
The greater the factory lighting, the higher the productivity. Factory Lighting Productivity
The greater the amount of observation, the higher the public awareness. Observation Public Awareness
At this point, a researcher’s operational definitions help measure the variables. In a study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one researcher might define a “good” grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for “good.” Another operational definition might describe “tutoring” as “one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.” Those definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study.
As the table shows, an independent variable is the one that causes a dependent variable to change. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Or rephrased, a child’s sense of self-esteem depends, in part, on the quality and availability of hygienic resources.
Of course, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. Perhaps a sociologist believes that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will automatically increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two topics, or variables, is not enough; their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.
Just because a sociologist forms an educated prediction of a study’s outcome doesn’t mean data contradicting the hypothesis aren’t welcome. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While it has become at least a cultural assumption that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results will vary.
Once the preliminary work is done, it’s time for the next research steps: designing and conducting a study and drawing conclusions. These research methods are discussed below.
Interpretive Framework
While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an interpretive framework. While systematic, this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge.
Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.
Summary
Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in five phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study. Some sociologists conduct research through an interpretive framework rather than employing the scientific method.
Scientific sociological studies often observe relationships between variables. Researchers study how one variable changes another. Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables.
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