How did people like Galileo, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, or John Harrison challenge existing ideas about “What do we know?” and “How do we know it?”

Scientific Revolution: How did people like Galileo, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, or John Harrison challenge existing ideas about “What do we know?” and “How do we know it?”
Enlightenment as a cause of the French Revolution: Make sure you understand how philosophes (like Voltaire or Diderot) challenged absolutist authorities and how their ideas were then spread–coffee houses, salons, their writings.
French Revolution: Other than Enlightenment ideas, what were other causes of the French Revolution? (You need to be able to name and briefly summarize 3 or 4. For instance, do not just list crop failures; tell why this was so devastating.)
Napoleon: How did Napoleon both spread the ideas of the French Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity) and disrupt the entire continent of Europe? You need something about conquest as well as the Code Napoleon to answer this question most effectively.
Industrial Revolution: How did the enclosure movement + industrialization change the way Europeans lived their lives? How did industrialization lead to nineteenth-century imperialism?
Nationalism: What caused nationalism to develop and flourish throughout the nineteenth century? What were some symbols of nationalism (flags, anthems, slogans, visualizations of the nation–in paintings, for instance)? How was nationalism a force for good or ill?

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