Neurotransmitters and Receptor Theory

Post One
Receptors and neurotransmitters are like lock and key systems. Just as it takes the right key to open a specific lock, it takes the right neurotransmitter to bind to a specific receptor (Laureate Learning, 2021).
Explain to agonist and to antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents.
Agonists and antagonists act in opposite directions. When an agonist produces an action, the antagonist opposes the action. The Agonists are drugs with both affinities which bind to the target receptor, and intrinsic efficacy with change receptor activity to produce a response. The presence of an antagonist will reduce receptor occupancy by an agonist with a corresponding reduction in response. When the concentration of the agonist has increased its occupancy increases, and the inhibitory mechanism of the antagonist reduces. In turn, the agonist gains a full or partial response (Camprodon &Roffman, 2016)
Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels.
The G -protein-coupled receptors are a large protein group located on the cell membrane and bind to extracellular substances. The receptors then transmit signals from extracellular material to the G protein in the intracellular space. Ion channel linked receptors bind a ligand and open a channel through the membrane that allows the specific ion to pass through.
Explain how the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacological action.
Epigenetics refers to the genetic information aimed at understanding the function of the entire genome epigenetics in pharmacology helps scientists and prescribers tackle diseases by understanding it helps them prescribe the right medication doses manage them.
Impact on the way you prescribe medications to clients
Most medications alter a person’s chemical balance and pathway by enhancing specific neurotransmitters in the body that can lead to either desired effects or undesired effects. Examples could be antipsychotics and mood stabilizers like Haldol and Seroquel, which may work by blocking transmitters in the brain (Rosenthal & Burchum, 2018). However, these medications may cause heavy side effects called extrapyramidal effects like jerky movements, involuntary movements of the tongue, mouth, and jaw (Rosenthal & Burchum, 2018). So, the prescriber or the PMHNP should target the benefit of the medication to the patient.

Post two
An agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents, including how partial and inverse agonist functionality may impact the efficacy of psychopharmacologic treatments.
An agonist is a substance that works by stimulating the natural receptor ligand to activate the receptor and cause a biological response. Furthermore, causing the drug to activate the specific brain receptors, which leads to the full effect of the drug-taking place.
A partial agonist counteracts the effect of a full agonist by causing the drug to bind and activate the receptor but not fully elicit the response. Example buprenorphine is a mixed agonist and antagonist depending on the opioid receptor and on the dose variety.
An inverse agonist is a substance or agent that binds to the same receptor location as an agonist and is considered a full agonist. Moreover, it exerts the opposite pharmacological effect of a typical agonist. It demonstrates negative efficacy and is significantly diminished by competitive neutral antagonists that bind the receptors but do nothing with them once connected.
In contrast, an antagonist is a substance that binds to a receptor site, therefore blocking the agonist’s effect at the receptor site. For example, the antagonist for an opioid is naloxone which reverses and blocks the effects of other opioids by attaching to the opioid receptor (Salahudeen & Nishatla, 2017).
Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels.
GTP releases the G protein from the GPCR, and both of its subunits can activate effector molecules such as adenylyl cyclases and cation channels. To advance visual signal transduction, including the production of G protein and its subsequent activation. Most GPCRs are activated by ligands, which evoke a ligand-specific biological response when they bind to them. Extracellular inputs such as light, hormones, and neurotransmitters are translated into specific cellular responses by GPCRs (Latek et al., 2012).
Ion gated channels charge muscle cells electrical excitability and mediate most electrical signals in the nervous system. Ion channel-linked receptors connect to a ligand and open a channel across the membrane, via which specific ions can pass. G-protein-linked receptors attach to a ligand and activate a G-protein, which interacts with an ion channel or an enzyme in the membrane (Magoski & Kaczmarek, 1998).
How the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action.
Epigenetics itself can alter the response to the drug and change the treatment of, metabolism, and pharmacokinetics of the drug itself. These epigenetic mechanisms are systems that have evolved to deactivate gene activity or refine existing gene activity ultimately. Such systems are present in all genes and include modification and remodeling of chromatin, methylation of DNA (such as methylation of the CpG islet), and covalent modification of histones (such as methylation of l CpG island), acetylation, and methylation (Stefanska & MacEwan, 2015). For example, a person with reduced dopamine formation and receptor binding may have an affinity for the degree of drug addiction or natural tolerance.
How this information may impact the way, medications are prescribe to patients.
To treat an individual involves gathering information that is essential to treat the patient’s symptoms. It involves gathering patient medical and family history, including prescribed medications. At my job, before a medication is prescribed, information is gathered about the patient’s medical, family history, and prescribed medications. If a couple of psychotropic medications fail to treat a patient’s symptoms, lab work is carried out, and gene testing is done as well with the consent of the patient. Some medications may work for a family member, which may help the patient from the gene.
Genetic Testing
Physicians need to become familiar with the appropriate use of genetic testing for
patients and current sources of information that allow them to convey reliable information. Genetic tests evaluate human DNA, RNA, chromosomes, or protein used to locate abnormalities associated with an inherited disorder. The test can study the DNA or RNA that make up a gene (direct testing), examining markers that are with a disease-inflicting gene (linkage testing), study the protein merchandise of genes (biochemical testing) or study the whole chromosome (cytogenetic testing). Genetic test results usually have implications for other family members, not only for the patient (Pagon et al., 2001)
References
Latek, D., Modzelewska, A., Trzaskowski, B., Palczewski, K., & Filipek, S. (2012). G protein-coupled receptors–recent advances. Acta biochimica Polonica, 59(4), 515–529. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4322417/
Magoski, N. S., & Kaczmarek, L. K. (1998). Direct and indirect regulation of a single ion channel. The Journal of physiology, 509 ( Pt 1)(Pt 1), 1.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.001bo.x
Pagon, R. A., Hanson, N. B., Neufeld-Kaiser, W., & Covington, M. L. (2001). Genetic testing. The Western journal of medicine, 174(5), 344–347.
https://doi.org/10.1136/ewjm.174.5.344
Salahudeen, M. S., & Nishtala, P. S. (2017). An overview of pharmacodynamic modelling, ligand-binding approach and its application in clinical practice. Saudi pharmaceutical journal : SPJ : the official publication of the Saudi Pharmaceutical Society, 25(2), 165–175.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2016.07.002
Stefanska, B., & MacEwan, D. J. (2015). Epigenetics and pharmacology. British journal of pharmacology, 172(11), 2701–2704.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13136
Naly
6 minutes ago
Respond to at least two of your colleagues on two different days in one of the following ways:
If your colleagues’ posts influenced your understanding of these concepts, be sure to share how and why. Include additional insights you gained.
If you think your colleagues might have misunderstood these concepts, offer your alternative perspective and be sure to provide an explanation for them. Include resources to support your perspective.

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